As with all investigations of the past, the belief persists implicitly that, through a proper understanding of the act fof making places, this most essential skill ff all without which life cannot, literally exist, we come closer to. And so it would be as im- proper to evaluate the constructive im: pulse of a nation exclusively through its lit erate architectue—public monuments and buildings of prestige—as it would be to de- termine its socisl character on the basis of its leading personages alone.
To the extent that American society atthe time of George Washington de vended on slave labor, 10 pick one random instance, the architec: tural history ofthe period must include sive cabins as well as Mount Vernon, The truth is that modest structures in the periphery of menuments are not simply of Intrinsic value; t ey ae also essential to the correct interpretation of the monuments themselves. This may seem obvious 10 us because Southern plantations are a familiar institution of our Fecent past.
If trey were not and we sub- scribed to the avistocratic view of architec. The last lwo observations deserve a fur ther word. They have turned on occasion into active champions of one style at the expense of another, justiving their prefer tence in tees of aesthetic, structural, oF feven moral arguments.
At other, Renaissance atchite tolled over Gothic; Baroque architecture d as excessively gaudy: and the dominant Beaux-Arts cla Hic buildings in America at the turn of the Century was minimized in favor of the oc tasional unorthodoxy of design that pre: saged new directions The historian must attempt to speak of architecture as it was, not asi should have been.
We have no further control over what has happened. We have the duty to under ic sympathetically how it was and why it happened. To scold the nineteenth cen: tury, say, for what it did oF did not do for the historian, no more than personal indulgence. To insist that it should not be repeated is useful and the proper function of the critic History has no alternative but to accept that matters of quality are not absolute, that the terms of quality are set by each period ino: by each building.
Figs, 1. In our these traditions have always held a secondary place. This imbalance is natural given the preoccupa tion of each cu ture with itself. Our esteem for Chartres Cathedral will be more balanced if we were made aware that this master. The Meaning of Architecture The fourth and final premise of this book concems the meaning of buildings. Build ings are not only physical presences. To study as fully as we can what they are does not exonerate us from asking why they are there.
These questions must be answered, of at least asked, and they must be answered in Felation to two extramaterial concepts: time and purpose Time implies sequence. Threads extend from it backward and for ward, to other buildings whose.
As a building goes up it cannot ignore the millennial landscape of form into which it will soon emerge. Once itis up, it will itself be irrevocable, however long its natural life, as a sound is irrevocable once ithas been uttered.
The building may de- light or disgust us: we may grow to revere it or make fun of it, cross ourselves as we go by itor call it by an unilattering nick name. This is not to imply a historical determin: ism of form, whereby each building must be considered the ineluctable offspring of its predecessors, There are many factors that condition sequence, not the least of which is the intention of the patron and the ar chiteet.
But tradition is there: itis a lan guage, a source, a challenge. Its the great Container of architectural experience, and no building can live outside of it. Behind What we call architectural revivals lies the desire to emulate the architectural mode of another place and another time, not only to show esteem for the older tradition, but aso in order to associate ourselves with the spirit and values that we think were preva lent there and then.
What is being recalled in these is not the physical form but the fame of the prototype. The function of a tomb isto house the dead. But how adequate a purpose is this for the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Cheops! Ritual may be sad to be the poetry of func- tion: insofar asa building is shaped by it ual it does not simply house function, it comments on it. Magia Sophia sings the ineffable- hess of Christian mystery in providing a space of which one user is man and the other user is unseen and unpredictable.
To the extent, then, that architecture is the useful art that lays ready the stage for Further Reading 3B. It tenters the seductive reaches of interpreta: tion where proo! Reading buildings as the embodiment of the social forder that produced them is no easy mat ter. For one thing, buildings do not always passively reflect society. But this sno :rave danger. When did architecture begin? Human beings, in their own distinctive form, have been inhabiting the earth for more than one million years, For most of that time they were unaware of architec: ture, if by that term we want to understand the ambitious creation of an environment separate from the natural order, But if, as we suggested, architecture describes sim ply the act of making places for ritual use, it was one of the earliest human needs, Indeed, architecture may be said to have beer there from the beginning, in raw foe as it were, in the very arrangement of na ture.
For only if we conceive of the earth a5 a vast and featureless plain stretching Uunendingly in all directions would we have the total absence of architecture. Once there are ridges and rivers to divide this expanse, hills to punctuate it, and caves 10 gouge it, the business of architecture has already begun.
That is what all architecture provides, regardless of its complenity. It raises solid masses that blot out as much space as their bulk, And it rears about our heads barriers, to contain shel: tered space The last ofthese isthe easiest to see. The sense of refuge is instinctive, It seems natural to build to attain it Bur architecture is more than protective shells, In seeking to bring about places for fitual action, it must set out to deine the boundless, that is, to limit space without necessarily enclosing it in all three dimen sions, It does this in two specific ways through circumscription and accent.
The second way involves the Setting up of free structures that, by theie very mass and height, might focus an oth fenwise undifferentiated stretch of open space—architecture as monument Boundary and monument both imply a determined marking of nature. Now the frst human generations lacked such conti- dence in their own standing within nature. As they moved about in search of tolerable climate and food, the special environments they gave shape to were tentative and un- obtrusive, an architecture of shelter con- tained in the pleats of the earth The shelter, for the most part, was there ready to be used, in the caves that had to bbe wrested from Savage predators such as bears, lions, and the giant hyena.
We have proof, however, of huts in the open, like the ones atthe encampment of Terta Amat near Nice in southern France, dating back to about , years ago. But beyond this, the burning fire molded an ambience of companionship, a station for the hunter to pause, cook his game, harden his tools, and communicate with his band of fellows.
The earliest hearth known to us, fat the great cave of Fscale in. It as a stone age camp, used for a number of years, it seems, ahvays brietly during the late spring.
Ina cove by the beach, traces of some twenty huts were found, often disposed on top of one an- fother-—on a sardbar, on the beach isel, and on a dune.
Within, the long axis vas lined with larger posts to help hold up the roof—just how we do not know. We do know something about building tools gen: erally. The digging was probably done with fireshardened wooden spears; the pruning and trimming, with hand axes made of pieces of flint or limestone, What is significant isthe way in which the hunters made use of the enclosed space.
The hearth was in the middle, protected from the prevailing northwest wind by a screen of pebbles. The immediate area around it was free of litter, indicating that there the band must have slept.
Further out from this social focus of the hut there were work spaces and, in one case, a kind of Kitchen, to judge from the large smooth stone that was marked by tiny scratches, most likely resulting from the cutting of meat. Dur ing the litespan of the Neanderthals be- tween 40, and , years ago, and of their successors the Cro-Magnon people, stone tools noticeably improved and now Included cutting knives, sharp and easy to grasp.
It was not only surviving day after day that mattered. AV its mouth the hunter might still live, but the dark in ner recesses came to be reserved for cer- temonies of life and death and aterlite.
The cave at Monte Citceo, a limestone hill south fof Rome, contained a unique chamber B where a single battered skull was stood in 4 trench along the farthest wall, with stones arranged around it in an oval ring. The dead man had been laid out in a shallow grave filed with tools and animal bones.
Cn his ches a bison leg had been deliberate'y placed, perhaps as pro vision for the world he had slipped into. Sometime fairly late during this long search for elerrental beliels, the hunters started using art as a tool of expression. Art too was reality. It ditfered from the physical world In that it was free of erratic movement and the biological dictates of growth and death, The mammoth cr woolly rhinoceros, fixed to the wall by the artist in a mixture of ground mineral earths and charcoal com- pressed into bone tubes, stayed there, the Sure target of tie disabling spear.
These images of magic compulsion, if such they were, reintorcec the strange power of the cult and quickened its sense of mystery. As ritual use had transformed caves into rel gious architecture, so art now made tang ble a range of meaning in these hidden sanctuaries of the earth The Cave at Lascaux We can see all this in the celebrated cave at Lascaux.
They had been created tcward the end of the last slacal period. There were smaller glaciers in the Aps and the Pyrenees. The tal. The animal must be killed to suppor Ht was the great adversary the hunter deadly in attack and hie-sustaining in death. The hunter must preval he knew, would be bound up with deteat 4 to kill Fo animals he man the feaer of them there were and theretore the magic that secured the t Of the quarry must also advance its abun dance And so, in these deep caves of France and Spain, the hunter painted the anima truthiully, in the context of this par adox of life and death, of fertility and ex tinction, Plentiful game was the boon of fertile.
The paintings convey, across millennia, a striking sense for the build and habits of the sented. The attitude towaed them seems feverent. According tone of animal spirit, and the hunter's guarantee ff participating in the special power of the animal. The painted image is hope Piation in one—the hope of drawing the Animal to the kill, and expiation for having To kill i Weapons themselves were often carved into animal forms, and men dance in animal masks.
There was no attempt to change the given contiguration, by dropping the tl level, for example, passages. At Laseaux, not only wer hands busy working on the ca of images and the too that tuncertain limits of the cave imph ished thing.
Th he led The far end of the Hall is taken up by a of four immense bulls in thick black the fourth Three are in Indian file faces them, its huge horns extended across tempty space. Then there are circles marked by uprights: either stones, as at Avebury 27 kilometers 17 miles north of Stonehenge, with two huge interrelated circles; or else wooden posts, as at Woodhenge, closer still, about 3 ki- lome:ers northeast. Over stone circles are known today all across the British Isles— jn northeast Scotland and Ulster, in Corn: wall and Wales.
Fig, 2. To mark the circumter: fence, a ditch was dug through the solid chalk, with the usual tools—digging sticks, picks of antler, and shoulder bones of oxen for shovels, The dazzling white earth was piled up on two banks.
The circle was bro- ken at one place only, in the northeast quadrant. It stood just off the centerline of the break, next to a wooden gateway of four posts, and it stands there stil tited to one side. The point of this arrangement was frst surm sed in the eighteenth century. A per son standing at the center of the white ci le on the morning of the summer solstice, the longest day of the year, and looking in the direction of this so-called Heel Stone, would have seen the sun rise alittle tothe left of its imposing mass, on axis with the break.
The date of this frst scheme, known as Stonehenge I 's now thought to be around s. It fan on straight for a while, and then curved Fight to reach the river Avon a short dis- tance away. A narrow embanked enclosure about 3 kilometers miles long to the forth of the sanctuary seems to belong with the avenue. Its known as the Cursus. Unless the bluestones were de- posited in the area by glaciers, the teat was amazing. It seems probable that the a fenue af Stonehenge Il commemorates the last stretch of portage.
Monumentalized boundaries like the alignments of Carnac differ trom them because at Stonehenge the spatial Units were cast nto total frames through the added definition of the lintels.
But the dit- ference is more fundamental, For the builders of Stonehenge Ill, architecture implies a weldig together of units that Would read 2s a ingle sustained arttact.
OF Course, Ggantia and the megalithic tombs, too, were complicated assemblages. But as architecture of shelter, they molded interior spaces where incidents of detail were not crucial to the enveloping Impact of the steme fabric. The stone core ff the tombs let sland impertections ot joining. At Ggantija, dressed stones and Slabs of decoration heightened surface ap- peal as an applied, rather than inherent, bffect of the ste.
We have here 4 skeletal construct, like a stone dance. Uprights were tapered toward the top, to make them look sprightlier under their burden. Thi too is a familiar system of joining used in Cabinetmaking, called mortse-and-tenon— perhaps to recall the wooden prototypes of The precinct was reorganized one time.
The bluestones, which were boeing moved back during the building of Stonehenge It! This last arrange possibly a late a in these final incar In the opinion of se er was, Always, there had mic implications.
Even were this true—and much of it has been disputed—we must be careful not 10 confuse our own modern demands on sci- fence and the more elemental needs of pre storic farmers and herders for celes- tial indicators of the seasons.
Furthermore, we must not confuse function and ritual, as Wwe Fave distinguished these in our inteo- ductory chapter. Function in architecture is, Further Reading RI. Evan, Malia London: Thames and Hudson, A Laing.
Lscaue tans. It is an abstraction in that it applies to an activity without reference to human involvement. Ritual is the tran- scendence of function to the level of 3 meaningiul act. That would be its function, But the meaning of Stonehenge resides in the ritual, tis ths that humanizes this calendar of stone and earth in the open countryside; itis this that explains the prodigies of engineering and labor that went into its making.
Function did not demand the choice of bluestones and igrey sarsens and their transport from long distances away. Wainwright, the Yenge Monuments. There are two. And second, the ppassoge sings rapturously of a thing called the cty, set on a river, serviced by canals, blessed with good freshwater. So atthe very same time in history in two separate corners of the ancient world, dit: ferent patterns of community were in ex istence.
While Neolithic Eurape carried on a stone-using peasant economy well into the Secord millennium 8. They had leit their Neolithic past behind them long before Europe and had gone on to forge a complex society of reat technological achievement and ma: terial wealth.
How was this fabric wrought? What were its components? Physically, what is it that differentiates the ty from the village? The city,is an involved organism under constant change. The city presents us with a new set of enviconmental ideas, such as the street, the public square, the deensive wall and its gates.
Itcromds our discussion with 4 score of building inventions—tor exam- ple, the canal and the granary, the palace and the bath, the market, the bakery, shops, Festaurants, and ibraries, The urban revolution difers from the Neolithic revolution in one essential way. It does not atfect the basic relationship of people to nature, as the passage from hunting to food production certainly di Agriculture and animal husbandry survive asthe principal modes of subsistence inthe urban period.
Even trade cannot be credited exclusively t0 the ise of cities. The city, above ail ese, typified a social process. The Settlement at Jericho about 9, years ago. Catalhoyuk in southern An- tol, a Thectare acre Neolithic set- tlement ofthe seventh millennium. The term urban has turned into 2 Value judgment; rural or pastoral, in con- trast, carry with them a note of regression or conservatism This bias is unfair. It is not enough t0 grant the truism that cities, for the most part, could not survive without the sustain ing labor of peripheral fields and pastue.
There were moments in history when the turban and pastoral modes of lite wore competing high cultures. There were mo- ments, , when the collapse of an urban civilization ushered in, after a period of painful adjustment, an equally viable social structure that made do without cities. We are given to falling them the Dark Ages. The city-form a pired to be compact and versatile. And the future of this proud amalgam of people and buildings could be secured only through faultless detense and aggressive progress.
The Lieal interaction among its people, complicated by numbers, was only fone dimension of its social mobility. Out- side, there were other centers of closely controlled resot ces that envied it or re- plenished its wants. To defend itself against the envious and till carry on trade, the city formed a larger sphere of social contact.
The citizenry -vas forced to organize it self in a way that could contend with the diversified tasks fits supple existence. And spe- Cialization went hand in hand with social Stratification. The gods looked after the entire citizenry, both the humble and the high: the temples solemnized pious community The ring of wals expressed the fears andthe strer gthof acommoniate. Jericivo Precisely how it all started is unclear. Instead of trying to dress up the m;ain diff ren ce was that here sma ll glassed- ce nt vintage-and they believed in it.
Petersburg, Munich , Karlsruhe , and Berlin. Neoclassicism had ralty was rebuilt on a larger scale and three determi n ation to bring a humane fullness left a taste for single sculptural building squares systematized along three sides. On th e nght the lelt are the three residen tia l blocks and , fac- are th e ra ctori es. He was not ca lled on to design monumental squares or noble ave nues.
His commis- sions were all single buildings: a royal guardhouse , a the 1ter. Through the ca reful siting of each one , and a design that called to its neighbors without forced parity, Schinkel Fig.
Foreground : the Academv Hansen ; left : the National Library. Between his buildings and oth- o t Scien e, '1- Theophilus Han sen; ce n- Theophilus Han sen. Here in this setting militarist isolation or within 2 total scheme of their None of the five squares is tightly co n- Russia co uld stage its parades and the Or- own making, Schink el's buildings reached fi 1ed.
They spill into each other and inter- thodox Church it s colorful processions , out to the neighborhoods to acknowledge leek in a way that is very differe nt from the while society trolled or rod e along the and improve what was there.
The Gothic Revival Homog neity, for the whole co nstellation The bias , and its univer'i al applicability to all taff Bl ilding whose severe classicism planned structure of the city , its spines and classes of buildings.
The the contrary. But the two are related in a newer section of town , laid out on a grid in place and building twology, and when it is eneral ay and rivetted by the same axis. This lt ran from the old castle-palace of the Ho- planning. This was the Prus- that Gothic, or rath er the broad spectrum Holy Symod buildings. On the corresponding of medieval forms. Two inevitable fOf't hright manner from th e variegated type lined up with that stiff, fanatical dis- claims followed.
Hol y Synod 12 ent to Pete r Exchange ofT tt. Ma- khaev. The cen tral lower marks the old Admira lty Building. Petersburg, military review. Furt her back, beyo nd the Column of Cza r Alexand er I, the tower of the new Admira lty ca n be see n.
And it was also, as a German writer put it in , " the style of building best adapt d to a northern climate and a cold er zone. As early as the landscape archil et Humphrey Repton proposed a greenhouse with a cast-iron frame based on octagonal chapter houses like that of Salis- bury athedral. From the point of view of design.
Such plans were in- formal , less inhibiting , and therefore ideal for rural residences. Where conformity to surrounding structures or historical constancy made it desirable, in collegi ate work for example, the domain of Gothic could be widened. But the religious argument proved to be the m ost critical.
After the shock of the French Revolution, the English government resolved to strengthen the Church to counter seditious passions. London 's pop- dation had gone from a million inhabitants Fig. Be rltn r about t vice that number in twenty years. In Parliament passed the Church Building Act that allocated one mil- lion pounds for new churches , and of. Schinke l's Packhof build- i.
M00 A. Most of these carried on the Classical for- mat- a temp le mass with a spi re rising just behind the pedimented front portico. But about one in every six new churches was done in what was ca lled Commissioner's Gothic , which was anything but scho larly. The jus: ification was an odd one. Ecclesiologist, the influential organ of the Camdenites, was launched in that year as a guide to Anglican worship.
The goal was the exact imitation of historical model s. The fourteenth cen- tury was the heavy favorite, and the editors showed a spec ial fondness for th e small rural churches of the Middle Ages in an ev- ident mood of antiurban romanticism. Concessions might be made to modern times in technical rr alters , but not in any- thing else. The use of iron was grudgingly acknowledged, for exa mple , and even a design was proposed for an iron church that could be prefabricat!
But no all-iron churches were buill anywhere in England because bishops made it plain they would refuse to consecrate them. Internally, the chancel with its high altar was once again th e focal point of the church. In fact , the olevotional settings and ritual of the Anglicans moved very close to Fig.
Huddersfield mile 32 kilometer long ca nal runs in part through the Standedge Tunnel , slightly over 3 miles 5 ki- Catholic practi ce, ard intentionally so. In the dis- lometers long. The ca nal was abandoned in This 19 England since the Catholic Emancipation Act.
This phenomen o n became knotted to the Gothic revival through the fiery propa- ganda of one man, an architect narned Au- gustus Welby Pugin The son of herents now fought for two related princi- was a castellated mode , reserved at first for a French emigre and a convert to Catholi- p es : th flt Gothic form must be reproduced country mansions and extended later, pre- cism, Pugin acquired a learned mastery of accurate y, and that it must be seen to have dictably, to prisons.
A version of this , the medieval architecture' when he was still very devotial rel eva nce. Medieval archaeol- so-called Scottish baronial mode, found fa- young.
He was Barry's Gothic expert on the o y had taken long strides ever since the vo r with the young Queen Victoria, as the Houses of Parliament, the buildings which appearamce of Thomas Rickman 's An At- private royal residences of Osborne and were to establish tl1e Gothic revival as a tempt t Discriminate the Styles of English Balmoral bear witness. The decorated cot- contending nineteenth-century option. Architeqfure from the Conquest to the Ref- tage had its own brand of low-style Gothic.
In Pugin putlished a book entitled ormation of There were now measured was institutionalized with the founding of Taste. The thrus t of his argument was thi s. There advantage of this popular medium. The showed late medievJI institutions and their. The plate ca lled " Contrasted Resi- dences for the Poo r" illustrates the mod- ern poor-hous e as a grim , radially disposed building, like a Neoc lassical prison , stripped of all decoration.
In marginal vignettes we see features of an inmate's life : idle bore- dom , punishment, 1 diet of gruel , bread , and oatmeal potato es, and his dead body carted away for dissection. The :fay is sperit in prayer, F1g. Bring that sr; le of architecture back , Pugin argued , and yo u will be on your way to " a restoration of lhe ancient feelings and sentiments. And if this is expl cable in terms of a Ca- tholicizing trend in the Church of England , the style was taken up equally enthusiasti- cally by non-Angl tcans as well.
But the Gothic reviva l made only minor inroads beyond England and the United States. Gothic churches in France leaned on ear- For the exterior view of this library. Second, its national- formal reservoir of Western architecture.
Liverpool England , Crown Street rail- road station , , John Foster 11 and George Stepllenson : a view in a period print ; b ground plan. Wyatt and I. Brunei ; interior view.
The Iron Age The battle of style , engaged elevated minds. The countryside was under siege. The first public railway line vention of co ncrete had a building tech- was opened in between Stockton and nology so radicalized architecture. An epic con- ment offices, and the fashionable shop- test now began-to shrink distance and ping arcades , other ' industrial.
To this speed up time. The cities throbbed and docks with attendant wa rehouses. Slag and to the limits of endurance or squatting at specialized, one concea led it beneath pre- soi l hea and the refuse of mines were the edges in bleak settlements of identical , sentable sheaths or, il exposed, stamped it everywh e in evidence like giant stains.
The casting process was geared to warehou s. The increasing use of iron and glass prefabrication in burk, so that members the- Turn ike Acts had authorized by the was shaking up traditional construction co uld be shipped to th e site ready-made and 's mo e than 32, kilometers 20, methods and animating feats of enclosed or assembled with ease. Here one had a nat- 1 miles of ighway controlled through 1, traversed space. Not since the Roman in- ural supporting system, then, for the tra-.
Th o m as Hopper's co n- desc ribed hi s cre. Petersb urg of is a of Rege nt Stree t aped th e late medi eval fa n gives Europe th e idea. But Fo ntaine roo fed the Gal eri e d'O rl ea ns in th e with ho llow tiles mad e fo r exce ll ent fire- unlike Go thi c ca th edrals wh ere th e va ul t publi c ga rd en o f o ne o f th e palaces in Pa ri s retarda nt roo fs. Eve n w hen iro n m em- passages in Franc e.
Amo ng th e mos t im- with o pp er leaves. Still , so methin g of th at visual ex- lt w as aga in in I ranee th at th e new tech- co urse train shed s. In fac t, some ea rl y metal Th e appea rance o f m eta ll ic ca nopi es in freei ng o f all tract in th e Revo lutio n o f The cable trains were ard Morris Hunt. In the foreground , at the far. The to appear were large shops that matter.
When Labrouste dared to work with umns. The barrels u e carried on delicately and related accessories-lin- iron and glass in the library of Ste. The British Museum library a lit- tl e lat r on, with its grand circu lar reading room, also introduced iron stacks and iron floors. This has a sp lendid reading room covered by a se- ries of light terra-cotta domes that rest on thin iron co lumn s and arches and are pierced by ocu li.
The Crysta l Palace was an as tonishing bui ldi g. Bel- thousands oi sma ll prefabricated parts. Grand Hornu , ea. There was no mason-y anywhere-just the iron lattice- work holding up the uniform shee ts of glass train shed.
A contemporary criti c special case of wide-span construction, that tering was the sar 1e in both cases. While pointe out the common perception that turned shortly thereafter into a testing the terminal, not uncommonly combined 'here he standards by which architecture ground for modern engineering. By , with a hotel , put on the fashions of the ad hi herto been judged no longer held thanks to the verve of iron , a single clear current architectur.
New Street Station, Birmingham , and a tri- ing over tracks and trains corrobora ted the vletal and glass return ed to specia lized ple span with a combined width oi almost coming oi the industrial age-its excite- Jsage, and public architecture at large re- 74 meters feet in the second Padding- ment and bluster , but also its disturb1ng affirmed its faith in mass and the manual ton Station, London.
The nasonry facades , on the of history. At the court, ant icip. The ma- that brings out most -; trongly their intrinsic sonry abutments were designed in one of qualities. In the Menai Strait Bridge trialism. The industria 1st thought in terms of iord applied the principle of suspension to a complete course nf operations that em- an enormous span of meters feet.
A minint; plant was comprised wrought-iron chains slung over towers, and of bellpits and galle ries; the dams , water was buried deep in rock at either end. To courses , and water wheels that kept the render them rust-proof, the links were mine dry; derrick towers and dressing treated in boiling linseed oil and stove- floors; smelt mills v. Impressive masonry arches an- the blowing house uf the tin smelter; the chored the roadbed from below.
Suspension bridges were not new, of road , or tramway; and the final link with a course. We encountered them on the Inca main road or canal. A brewery had to in- Stonehouse , Gloucestershire Eng- high roads , and even the iron-chain ver- clude besides the actual brewhouse , a Mill , ; exterior showing weav- sion had been tried and patented in New counting house , cooperage, stables, and the York a decade or so before Menai.
Tel- storehouses for the Jrge vats. The employers found it efficient to have feasible on a large scale. Sometime5 this amounted to set- d by the clock tower. If the employer's pretensions ran to areas remote from river navi- of San Francisco -we live with to high , an architect m1ght be asked to draw need of them much ahead of the this day.
The oldest iron bridge hills, industry arrayed its own building sys- workers ' houses fr;1mes the factory, the This raw landscape, long neglected symbol of economic power. Pritchard to cross by architectural historians, now has a About the ftmctionalism of industrial ar- -prone evern , near Coalbrook- haunting beauty in its abandonment.
The chitecture we shoutd keep two things in point some 30 meters feet trial-and-error advance of this environment mind. First, bui ldings like breweries, docks, single , nearly semicircular , arch is a fascinating story of intell igent response and workers' housing estates were by no up of five cast-iron ribs, each to evolving, techn ically tough programs; it means disdainful of stylistic niceties. And of only two members. The architec- culiar to the modern scene. Every age has n Sunderland Bridge , on tural forms , spare and commonsensical , are it plain style , and I am not talking about hand , the ribs of the single arch the very model of functional design, which folk architecture.
E'en the Baroque , the out of many cast-iron J. M altin gs hollsed th e b arl ey th at w as co nve rted int o ma lt thro ugh a p ro cess of arres ted ge rm in an. Jesse Hartl ey, dock engin e r, with high pyrami da l roo fs that break into th e ! Englan d. The iu nnel-s hape d kiln s o f po t- o t o ft en wh at start s as a utilitari an ex- des ign cli ches by later architec ts.
Fi gs. Th e nove l so luti o ns o f arches with no surround s, loo k fo rward to " rackin g sta ges" to r ba rrelin g. Th e charac - indu strial programs, too, d ivo rced fro m th e co mm ercial stru ctures o f Lo ui s Sulli- teri stic gro un d piJ n of a brewe ry show s a. Its funct ion was simple.
The re jui re ments stayed basi- cally the same whate ver the individua l mi- lieu or the goods in c uestion: easy loading and unloading , ampi P storage space, pro- tection from fire and theft. But how unhack- neyed their appeara11ce can be , how ex- pressive their bilnding together o n th e waterf ront of river por ts or harbors or at the junction of cana ls an-I railroads.
Many are grim, gaunt buildings. The vast majority are of brick with sto ne trim , their surfaces studded with heavy tie-irons. In rare instances the ex terior is weather- boarded. Katharin e's Docks just down river from the Tower of London.
Here ships load ed and unload ed their wares, unaffected by the rise and fall of tid es. The slacks of floo rs were ifted on sturdy co lumns flush with the water 's edge. At intervals the fa ca des w ere recessed to allow space for cranes. The buildings are stark , stoical, blunt. They impress us with their honesty. The goods produ ced were for everyone. But no class escaped the toll of industrialization ; no life , howeve r remote from the colliery, mine, or mill, could stay untouched by what went on there.
We are in the midst of it still. But now, after two hundred years, w e have come close to understanding, willy-nill y, that na- ture is a resource that can be depl eted, that Fig.
Ka tharine's Docks , warehouses we re. This progr. They ca n di- designed th e row oi warehou ses shown here; pho tog raph was ta , en in The wa rehouses minish and maim us in the long run , while th eir interior struct ure is wooden. Behind th e have since been dh troyed. Cornwall England , abandoned mine use. Cornwall once had mines for tin , coa l. Egorov, The Architectural Planning of St. Peters- M. Landry Cambridge, Mass. Pundt, Schinkel's f:erlin Ca mbridge, Mass. Onn London: Lund Humphries,.
Hitchcock, Architecture: Nineteenth and B. Harmond s- London : Dent, 19U. Watkin and T. Mellinghoff, German Architecture F. A Vtew of the Part of the Town of Boston , engraving, Paris France. Charles Garnoer; detail ot lhe main fa ade.
The and towers o r towerlike features. But the st ructure. And both defended their partic- 1rge in London would have been the just make of the skin, the styl e, is very different ular brand of de , ign in doctrinaire terms , omp, eted Midland Grand at St. Pan cras indeed in the two cases. The functional and eco nomical ha ndling of the building s the best known was the Grand in aspects of most building types were worked program as expressed through the immut- rough , Yorkshire , perched promi- out rationally , and with the co llaboration of able principles of classicism.
For Pugin and on a wedge-shaped cliffside lot above a growing number of specialists in heating , the Ecc lesiologisb, form was a cont ract of rth Sea. Architects co nceived of Ch ri stian way of li1e could be no ot her than cent ly differentiated as a type dis- their unique task to be the embellishment the correct res tatement of English Gothic.
Thei r size and planning re- building, and made use of suitable systems tions of architectural practice. A confirmed the revolution in travel that had of visual effects.
And ach sys tem on the country' s turn- 78 saw it hi s job and that of his peers to beauty he though t insepa rab le from virtue: ads and that had heightened dra- " decorate co nstruction. The stress on o rn ament as from dogma and mo ral judgment.
The habit nowl dged leade r in hotel design. These the architect's special province w ent back of the first half of the ce ntury of trying to 1clud d ho t and co ld running water, p ri- to Cha rle s Perrault see Chapter 22, page install this o r that style of the past o ut of ter-closets, and the hydraulic pas- , and the idea of the architect as style some purist drive now eased into a more elevator first used by Elisha Graves expert ab le to dress buildings appro- inventive , imp urP expe rimentation.
But modern idiom must tde o he Sca rborough Grand. The re sult- the ea rl y phase of modern architectu re. You 1g vis a! There was no q uestion of si m- pl y i nven ting something without prece- den t.
The Crys tal Pala ce was a freak , a ma rve lo us creation for a ve ry specia l mo- men t. Its designer, Sir joseph Paxton , w ent on to bui ld hi st ri cist chatea ux for the Rot hschild s. Th e co n- noi. But if we keep in mind the premise under which most pra ctiti oners worked , th at tremendous outpouring o f largb public b uildings and middle-class Fig. Th e Vi ew l'rom London Th e ex teriors of the two Grands character- brackets of th e m ain co rnic e. These styles are in a sti ll , but indebted to th e New Lo uvre which Sco tt wrote of thi s style that he had "a l- se n e th e co ntinuatio n of th e class ica l and Napoleon Ill , w ho proclaim ed himse lf em- most o rigin ated" it, and to th e exten t that Got ic schools of th e ea rli er nin eteenth pero r in , had bui lt as a showpi ece of the recipe had J strong individua lity thi s is cen -ury, but as they have bee n tran s- hi s regi me.
Gothi cists to m. Most no t- Gothic idiom s. High Victor ian Gothi c was an Eng lish phenomenon. But it never ca ugh t o n o utside the Engli sh-speaking wo rl d.
The style , it is ge nerally ag reed, starts with a London ch urch by an archi tect named Wil- liam Butteriie ld , All Sa ints, Margaret Street , which was being built from to on a crowded mid-bl ock site in the thick of a bo hemian lum off Regent Street. Th e walls exte rn ally are bo th massive a11d flat. We see a harsh, prismatic assembly of gab led units at the front representing the schoo l and vicarage , and through the na rrow ya rd between them we ente r th e chll rch on the long side.
Grand Hotel , tower that at ib ti me was the most co n- Cuthbert Brodrick. The hotel is built of sp icuou s land mark in ce ntral London. But it was its :, trid ent colo r scheme that really set All Sa i 'l i S apart. So by and large did terrace riot9us with Aberdee n gra nite co lumns housing and th e architecture of industry and ca rrying ca pitals of vei ned alabaste r which co mmerce.
Co ntempo rary had struck a nati o nalist cho rd. Personal sig- striped interi o r 01 th e Ca th ed ral at Pisa ; see at Whitehall , des pit e pressure natures are legion , but the ove rall trend was Fig. They s,1w in it "a dread of beauty, e Tory party, forcin g Sco tt to pro- to retrea t fro m hom eg rown versions of. With a few impo rtant O ne was the ea rl y period of French Gothic, shrill individual is n , Butterfi eld is prophetic!
His generati on has by G. With him also worst of times. Engla nd was the stro ngest. The in- justrlal age, now a reality, accounted for the :ountry's greatness, but it brought with it t feeling ot unease, the feeling that tradi- ional values had slipped irreparably.
This class 1ardly suffe red from the near co llapse of tgric,Jiture in the s under the impact of :hea American corn, a crisis that bled tristcj cratic wealth. The towns in the mean- -vhil co ntinued to grow turbulently. The 1ew prosperity was mounted on a rotten trma ture of human misery. The fear of so- :ial pheavals increased when the wo rkin g :lass won the vote in Scientific and Jibli qal scholarship threatened traditional 'rot tant beliefs , and eve rybody, rich and JOor 1 looked for a haven in family life and he 1-ome.
Sotnething of all this had to come through n mi -Victorian architecture. The associ- ttion of part icular styles with particu lar Juilding types was losing ground. The pu- ity f stuccoed surfaces o r monochrome ;ton was overwhelmed by the desire for 'arie. Architects overstated the colorful tppq ran ce of their projected buildings in arge waterco lor drawings and p resenta- ion dels.
Prefabrication ready machines of all kinds were speeding indicated status. Serious architects some- urn ed buildings into shippable commodi- production , and invading the jealously times looked for ways to come to terms with ies. The these increasing ly sharp lineaments of the tnd team-powered saws at the mason 's machines also made possible the cheap new industrial o rder.
Butterfield , for ex- rard 1vere still things of the future , but al- im itation of those ornaments that once had amp le, was willing to admit exposed cast-. Art to Morris was " the way in which man exp -esses joy in his work. The ca re and cost of crafts- man ship worked against his egalitarian , so- cialist view of life. On ly those well off co uld afford the firm 's products.
And there really was no way to roll back the Industrial Rev- olution , to returr- as he advocated to a world without railways md crowded cities, a world where wind and water were th e sole sources of power, where the state was no longer the great co ntrolling force and the craft guild , or cooperative, determined the social or- ganization.
They w ere willing to live with the mac-hine provided it cou ld be mastered and used as a tool at the behest of the artist. By the s the cli. Art need have no weightier purpose than to bring pleasure ; intellec- tual curiosity nPed not be lettered to t; interior from the east.
Ch ristian ethics. Mass production and the inevitable East. They had only to be combined taste- d Ruskin 's recoiled from machine- depreciation of quality that came with it fully. O ut of th ese sen tim ents spra g the styles ca lled " O ld Engli sh" and "Q u en An ne. O ld Engli sh lea ned o n the fa rmh o use vern cular o f the co unt ryside. Til e- han -ing, wea th erboa rdin g, and half-tim - beri r1g ca me back. Th e po int was Fig.
The mixed hered ity that it wo uld amo unt , as one practi tion er put it , to "a n absence o f style. So to th e di sg ust o f o lder Goth icists, Nes tleld an d Shaw assem b led in their Fig. Th e va riety was see m- from New Zea land. First, there was brick' piers, and eac h bay w as fi ll ed wi th an th e lo ng in stituti o nalized code of archi tec- orn ace o ri el that featured small panes tural behavio r. Th e off- th e Eco le des Bea ux-A rts, co ntro ll ed both ce nt r doo r sco rn ed th e co nve nti o n of th e edu cati o n of architects and pu b lic pa- cl ass ca l symmetry, and indeed in eve ry tro nage.
Th is w as. Henri Labrou ste. Overall, a very constructive force in class discussions. Shows consistent evidence of having done the reading and thought about how it relates to the course.
Steps in when there is a silence most of the time. When called upon, always has something worthwhile to say and shows evidence of having done the reading. Summarizes readings and cases accurately and always identifies at least one issue that a particular reading raises. B- Consistently present in class, but only contributes occasionally. Usually shows evidence of preparation when called upon. Sometimes seems unprepared when called upon. C Sometimes absent. When present, inclined to draw energy away from the discussion through apathy or lack of preparation.
Uday Dokras. The Popes as Planners: Rome Architecture for a New World Architectural Art and the Landscape of Industry The American Experience Victorian Environments The Trials of Modernism Architecture and the State: Interwar Years Designing the Fin-de-Siecle. Broderich, NY University, 'Very useful!
Broderich, New York University '[Kostof's] challenging text is ultimately inspiring, richly rewarding, and at times brilliant. Used To This Mp3 Download.
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